Which foods have astaxanthin

Long-term exposure to air and light can decrease astaxanthin concentration, as can contact with heat 1. Storage in airtight containers in dark places and minimizing cooking time may help reduce astaxanthin degradation in food 1. Teo Quay is a health communication enthusiast based in Ottawa, Canada. She has been studying, teaching and working in the fields of exercise physiology and nutrition since Teo received a master's degree in human nutrition from the University of British Columbia.

Monitor the health of your community here. More Articles. Written by Teo A. Antioxidants Basel. Mar Drugs. J Atheroscler Thromb. The commercial astaxanthin is mainly from Phaffia yeast, Haematococcus and through chemical synthesis. Haematococcus pluvialis is one of the best sources of natural astaxanthin [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ].

Astaxanthin content in wild and farmed salmonids are shown in Figure 1. Shrimp, crab and salmon can serve as dietary sources of astaxanthin [ 20 ]. Wild caught salmon is a good source of astaxanthin. In order to get 3. Astaxanthin supplement at 3. Astaxanthin is a member of the xanthophylls, because it contains not only carbon and hydrogen but also oxygen atoms Figure 2.

Astaxanthin consists of two terminal rings joined by a polyene chain. In case one, hydroxyl group reacts with a fatty acid then it forms mono-ester, whereas when both hydroxyl groups are reacted with fatty acids the result is termed a di-ester.

Astaxanthin exists in stereoisomers, geometric isomers, free and esterified forms [ 1 ]. All of these forms are found in natural sources. The relative percentage of astaxanthin and its esters in krill, copepod, shrimp and shell is shown in Figure 3. Astaxanthin has the molecular formula C 40 H 52 O 4.

Its molar mass is Astaxanthin and its esters from various sources [ 19 , 20 ]. Astaxanthin is a lipophilic compound and can be dissolved in solvents and oils. Solvents, acids, edible oils, microwave assisted and enzymatic methods are used for astaxanthin extraction. Astaxanthin is accumulated in encysted cells of Haematococcus.

High astaxanthin yield was observed with treatment of hydrochloric acid at various temperatures for 15 and 30 min using sonication [ 40 ]. In another study, vegetable oils soyabean, corn, olive and grape seed were used to extract astaxanthin from Haematococcus.

Astaxanthin 1. Astaxanthin was extracted repeatedly with solvents, pooled and evaporated by rotary evaporator, then re-dissolved in solvent and absorbance of extract was measured at — nm to estimate the astaxanthin content [ 17 ]. Further the extract can be analyzed for quantification of astaxanthin using high pressure liquid chromatography and identified by mass spectra [ 18 ].

Astaxanthin stability was assessed in various carriers and storage conditions. Astaxanthin derived from Haematococcus and its stability in various edible oils was determined [ 48 ]. It was found that degradation of astaxanthin was significantly higher in skimmed milk than orange juice. In another study, stability of astaxanthin biomass was examined after drying and storage at various conditions for nine weeks [ 50 ].

The stability of astaxanthin from Phaffia rhodozyma was studied and it was found that stability was high at pH 4. Astaxanthin contains conjugated double bonds, hydroxyl and keto groups.

It has both lipophilic and hydrophilic properties [ 1 ]. The red color is due to the conjugated double bonds at the center of the compound. This type of conjugated double bond acts as a strong antioxidant by donating the electrons and reacting with free radicals to convert them to be more stable product and terminate free radical chain reaction in a wide variety of living organisms [ 8 ].

Astaxanthin showed better biological activity than other antioxidants [ 11 ], because it could link with cell membrane from inside to outside Figure 4.

Superior position of astaxanthin in the cell membrane [ 12 ]. Dietary oils may enhance the absorption of astaxanthin. Astaxanthin was superior to fish oil in particular by improving immune response and lowering the risk of vascular and infectious diseases.

The proliferation activity of T- and B-lymphocytes was diminished followed by lower levels of O 2 , H 2 O 2 and NO production, increased antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase GPx , and calcium release in cytosol after administration of astaxanthin with fish oil [ 58 ].

Bioavailability and antioxidant properties of astaxanthin were enhanced in rat plasma and liver tissues after administration of Haematococcus biomass dispersed in olive oil [ 14 , 15 , 17 ].

Astaxanthin is a fat soluble compound, with increased absorption when consumed with dietary oils. Astaxanthin was shown to significantly influence immune function in several in vitro and in vivo assays [ 14 , 15 , 17 ]. Lipophilic compounds such as astaxanthin are usually transformed metabolically before they are excreted, and metabolites of astaxanthin have been detected in various rat tissues [ 59 ].

Astaxanthin bioavailability in human plasma was confirmed with single dosage of mg [ 60 ]. Its accumulation in humans was found after administration of Haematococcus biomass as source of astaxanthin [ 61 ]. Astaxanthin bioavailability in humans was enhanced by lipid based formulations; high amounts of carotenes solubilized into the oil phase of the food matrix can lead to greater bioavailability [ 62 ]. A recent study reported that astaxanthin accumulation in rat plasma and liver was observed after feeding of Haematococcus biomass as source of astaxanthin [ 14 , 15 , 17 ].

Carotenoids are absorbed into the body like lipids and transported via the lymphatic system into the liver. The absorption of carotenoids is dependent on the accompanying dietary components. A high cholesterol diet may increase carotenoid absorption while a low fat diet reduces its absorption. Astaxanthin mixes with bile acid after ingestion and make micelles in the intestinum tenue.

The micelles with astaxanthin are partially absorbed by intestinal mucosal cells. Intestinal mucosal cells incorporate astaxanthin into chylomicra. Chylomicra with astaxanthin are digested by lipoprotein lipase after releasing into the lymph within the systemic circulation, and chylomicron remnants are rapidly removed by the liver and other tissues. Astaxanthin is assimilated with lipoproteins and transported into the tissues [ 62 ].

Of several naturally occurring carotenoids, astaxanthin is considered one of the best carotenoids being able to protect cells, lipids and membrane lipoproteins against oxidative damage. An antioxidant is a molecule which can inhibit oxidation. Oxidative damage is initiated by free radicals and reactive oxygen species ROS. These molecules have very high reactivity and are produced by normal aerobic metabolism in organisms. Excess oxidative molecules may react with proteins, lipids and DNA through chain reaction, to cause protein and lipid oxidation and DNA damage which are associated with various disorders.

This type of oxidative molecules can be inhibited by endogenous and exogenous antioxidants such as carotenoids. Carotenoids contain polyene chain, long conjugated double bonds, which carry out antioxidant activities by quenching singlet oxygen and scavenging radicals to terminate chain reactions. The biological benefits of carotenoids may be due to their antioxidant properties attributed to their physical and chemical interactions with cell membranes. The antioxidant enzymes catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances TBARS were high in rat plasma and liver after feeding Haematococcus biomass as source of astaxanthin [ 17 ].

Astaxanthin in H. Astaxanthin contains a unique molecular structure in the presence of hydroxyl and keto moieties on each ionone ring, which are responsible for the high antioxidant properties [ 10 , 64 ]. The oxo functional group in carotenoids has higher antioxidant activity without pro-oxidative contribution [ 66 ]. The polyene chain in astaxanthin traps radicals in the cell membrane, while the terminal ring of astaxanthin could scavenge radicals at the outer and inner parts of cell membrane Figure 4.

Antioxidant enzyme activities were evaluated in the serum after astaxanthin was supplemented in the diet of rabbits, showing enhanced activity of superoxide dismutase and thioredoxin reductase whereas paraoxonase was inhibited in the oxidative-induced rabbits [ 67 ]. Antioxidant enzyme levels were increased when astaxanthin fed to ethanol-induced gastric ulcer rats [ 68 ]. Astaxanthin has a unique molecular structure which enables it to stay both in and outside the cell membrane.

It serves as a safeguard against oxidative damage by various mechanisms, like quenching of singlet oxygen; scavenging of radicals to prevent chain reactions; preservation of membrane structure by inhibiting lipid peroxidation; enhancement of immune system function and regulation of gene expression.

Astaxanthin inhibited lipid peroxidation in biological samples reported by various authors [ 14 , 15 , 17 , 18 , 68 , 69 ]. Astaxanthin is a potent antioxidant to terminate the induction of inflammation in biological systems.

Astaxanthin acts against inflammation. Algal cell extracts of Haematococcus and Chlorococcum significantly reduced bacterial load and gastric inflammation in H. Park et al. Haines et al. Another study showed astaxanthin esters and total carotenoids from Haematococcus exerted a dose-dependent gastroprotective effect on acute, gastric lesions in ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in rats.

This may be due to inhibition of H 1 , K 1 ATPase, upregulation of mucin content and an increase in antioxidant activities [ 68 ]. Astaxanthin showed protective effect on high glucose induced oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in proximal tubular epithelial cells. Astaxanthin is a promising molecule for the treatment of ocular inflammation in eyes as reported by the Japanese researchers [ 74 , 75 ].

Astaxanthin can prevent skin thickening and reduce collagen reduction against UV induced skin damage [ 14 , 76 , 77 ]. Generally, oxidative stress levels are very high in diabetes mellitus patients. It was also shown to be a good immunological agent in the recovery of lymphocyte dysfunctions associated with diabetic rats [ 79 ]. Improved insulin sensitivity in both spontaneously hypertensive corpulent rats and mice on high fat plus high fructose diets was observed after feeding with astaxanthin [ 82 , 83 , 84 ].

The urinary albumin level in astaxanthin treated diabetic mice was significantly lower than the control group [ 78 ]. Some of the studies demonstrated that astaxanthin prevents diabetic nephropathy by reduction of the oxidative stress and renal cell damage [ 85 , 86 , 87 ]. Astaxanthin is a potent antioxidant with anti-inflammatory activity and its effect examined in both experimental animals and human subjects. Oxidative stress and inflammation are pathophysiological features of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

Astaxanthin is a potential therapeutic agent against atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease [ 88 ]. The efficacy of disodium disuccinate astaxanthin DDA in protecting mycocardium using mycocardial ischemia reperfusion model in animals was evaluated.

Astaxanthin was found in the plasma, heart, liver, platelets, and increased basal arterial blood flow in mice fed with astaxanthin derivative [ 93 ]. Human umbilical vien endothelial cells and platelets treated with the astaxanthin showed increased nitric oxide levels and decrease in peroxynitrite levels [ 93 ].

Mice fed 0. Astaxanthin effects on paraoxonase, thioredoxin reductase activities, oxidative stress parameters and lipid profile in hypercholesterolemic rabbits were evaluated. The specific antioxidant dose may be helpful for the early detection of various degenerative disorders.

Reactive oxygen species such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical are generated in normal aerobic metabolism. Singlet oxygen is generated by photochemical events whereas peroxyl radicals are produced by lipid peroxidation. These oxidants contribute to aging and degenerative diseases such as cancer and atherosclerosis through oxidation of DNA, proteins and lipids [ 95 ]. Antioxidant compounds decrease mutagenesis and carcinogenesis by inhibiting oxidative damage to cells.

Cell—cell communication through gap junctions is lacking in human tumors and its restoration tends to decrease tumor cell proliferation.

Gap junctional communication occurs due to an increase in the connexin protein via upregulation of the connexin gene. Gap junctional communication was improved in between the cells by natural carotenoids and retinoids [ 96 ].

Canthaxanthin and astaxanthin derivatives enhanced gap junctional communication between mouse embryo fibroblasts [ 97 , 98 , 99 ]. It also inhibited the growth of fibrosarcoma, breast, and prostate cancer cells and embryonic fibroblasts [ ].

Increased gap junctional intercellular communication in primary human skin fibroblasts cells were observed when treated with astaxanthin [ 99 ]. Nitroastaxanthin and nitroastaxanthin are the products of astaxanthin with peroxynitrite, nitroastaxanthin anticancer properties were evaluated in a mouse model.

Epstein-Barr virus and carcinogenesis in mouse skin papillomas were significantly inhibited by astaxanthin treatment [ ]. Immune system cells are very sensitive to free radical damage. The cell membrane contains poly unsaturated fatty acids PUFA. Antioxidants in particular astaxanthin offer protection against free radical damage to preserve immune-system defenses. There are reports on astaxanthin and its effect on immunity in animals under laboratory conditions however clinical research is lacking in humans.

Enhanced antibody production and decreased humoral immune response in older animals after dietary supplementation of astaxanthin was reported [ , ]. Astaxanthin produced immunoglobulins in human cells in a laboratory study [ ]. Eight week-supplementation of astaxanthin in humans [ 72 ] resulted in increased blood levels of astaxanthin and improved activity of natural killer cells which targeted and destroyed cells infected with viruses.

In this study, T and B cells were increased, DNA damage was low, and C-reactive protein CRP was significantly lower in the astaxanthin supplemented group [ 67 , , ]. Recent reports on astaxanthin biological activities are presented in Table 2. Astaxanthin is safe, with no side effects when it is consumed with food.

It is lipid soluble, accumulates in animal tissues after feeding of astaxanthin to rats and no toxic effects were found [ 15 , 17 , ]. Excessive astaxanthin consumption leads to yellow to reddish pigmentation of the skin in animals. Astaxanthin is incorporated into fish feed, resulting in the fish skin becoming reddish in color. Antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase levels significantly increased in rats after oral dosage of astaxanthin [ 14 , 15 ].

Astaxanthin was also shown significant protection against naproxen induced gastric, antral ulcer and inhibited lipid peroxidation levels in gastric mucosa [ 67 , ]. Astaxanthin accumulation in eyes was observed when astaxanthin was fed to rats [ ]. Astaxanthin extracted from Paracoccus carotinifaciens showed potential antioxidant and also anti-ulcer properties in murine models as reported by Murata et al.

Astaxanthin bioavailability was increased with supplement of lipid based formulations [ 14 , 15 , 17 , ]. Supratherapeutic concentrations of astaxanthin had no adverse effects on platelet, coagulation and fibrinolytic function [ ]. Research has so far reported no significant side effects of astaxanthin consumption in animals and humans. These results support the safety of astaxanthin for future clinical studies.

It is recommended to administer astaxanthin with omega-3 rich seed oils such as chia, flaxseed, fish, nutella, walnuts and almonds.

The combination of astaxanthin 4—8 mg with foods, soft gels and capsules and cream is available in the market. Recent studies on astaxanthin dosage effects on human health benefits were presented in Table 3. In the present scenario, production of astaxanthin from natural sources has become one of the most successful activities in biotechnology. Astaxanthin has great demand in food, feed, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications.

This has promoted major efforts to improve astaxanthin production from biological sources instead of synthetic ones. According to the current literature, astaxanthin is used in various commercial applications in the market.

Astaxanthin products are available in the form of capsule, soft gel, tablet, powder, biomass, cream, energy drink, oil and extract in the market Table 4. Some of the astaxanthin products were made with combination of other carotenoids, multivitamins, herbal extracts and omega-3, 6 fatty acids. Patent applications are available on astaxanthin for preventing bacterial infection, inflammation, vascular failure, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, inhibiting lipid peroxidation, reducing cell damage and body fat, and improving brain function and skin thickness Table 5.

Astaxanthin containing microorganisms or animals find many applications in a wide range of commercial activities, the reason for which astaxanthin enriched microalgae production can provide more attractive benefits. The current research data on astaxanthin is encouraging and have resulted from well controlled trials in in vitro and in vivo models. Astaxanthin showed potential effects on various diseases including cancers, hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, liver, neurodegenerative, and skin diseases.

Its antioxidant properties are used against oxidative damage in diseased cells. Recently, our laboratory isolated and characterized astaxanthin and its esters from Haematococcus and checked their biological activities in in vitro and in vivo models, confirming that astaxanthin and its esters show potential biological activities in animal models.

However, there is a lack of research on astaxanthin esters mono-di and their metabolic pathways in biological systems. Future research should focus on effects of astaxanthin esters on various biological activities and their uses in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications.

Astaxanthin mono-diesters may increase biological activities better than the free form which can be easily absorbed into the metabolism. Further research requires to be investigated on their metabolic pathways and also molecular studies in in vitro and in vivo models for their use in commercial purposes. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.

Journal List Mar Drugs v. Mar Drugs. Published online Jan 7. Ravishankar Gokare Aswathanarayana 3 C. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract There is currently much interest in biological active compounds derived from natural resources, especially compounds that can efficiently act on molecular targets, which are involved in various diseases.

Keywords: astaxanthin, sources, stability, biological activities, health benefits, applications. Introduction Astaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid which is found in various microorganisms and marine animals [ 1 ].

Source of Astaxanthin The natural sources of astaxanthin are algae, yeast, salmon, trout, krill, shrimp and crayfish.

Table 1 Microorganism sources of astaxanthin. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Structure of Astaxanthin Astaxanthin is a member of the xanthophylls, because it contains not only carbon and hydrogen but also oxygen atoms Figure 2.

Figure 2. Figure 3. Extraction and Analysis of Astaxanthin Astaxanthin is a lipophilic compound and can be dissolved in solvents and oils. Storage and Stability of Astaxanthin Astaxanthin stability was assessed in various carriers and storage conditions. Biochemistry of Astaxanthin Astaxanthin contains conjugated double bonds, hydroxyl and keto groups. Figure 4. Bioavailability and Pharmacokinetics of Astaxanthin 7. Bioavailability Dietary oils may enhance the absorption of astaxanthin.

Pharmacokinetics Carotenoids are absorbed into the body like lipids and transported via the lymphatic system into the liver. Antioxidant Effects An antioxidant is a molecule which can inhibit oxidation. Anti-Lipid Peroxidation Activity Astaxanthin has a unique molecular structure which enables it to stay both in and outside the cell membrane.

Anti-Inflammation Astaxanthin is a potent antioxidant to terminate the induction of inflammation in biological systems. Anti-Diabetic Activity Generally, oxidative stress levels are very high in diabetes mellitus patients.

Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Astaxanthin is a potent antioxidant with anti-inflammatory activity and its effect examined in both experimental animals and human subjects. Anticancer Activity The specific antioxidant dose may be helpful for the early detection of various degenerative disorders. Those plants happen to be microalgae, which grow in the salt water oceans as well as fresh bodies of water. The same holds true for the essential fatty acid, omega 3 For example, animal A may not directly eat astaxanthin, but it eats animal B which does directly eat it.

As a result, A gets it from eating B. This is why seafood is the most common source of astaxanthin in food. Unfortunately that is the only vegan source.

That brings us to foods 11 through 15 on our list To put those numbers in perspective, the salmonoid category such as foods average out at about 5 ppm. That explains how much astaxanthin is in krill oil. Green algae? That puts sockeye salmon to shame. The species Haematococcus pluvialis has 8,x higher concentration than salmonoids. Obviously, not all of those are feasible for the human diet. Nor do you care to slurp up the Pacific ocean for some of that green algae!

What percentage of seafood sold in the world is shrimp? The entire category only represents 4. That means only 0. The warm-watered species are what we commonly eat and those have most of their pigment in the tails. Even if you ate those, much of it leaches out from boiling.

Astaxanthin food coloring is actually used for some applications because of that — to make seafood appear more red. Given its bright red color — usually but not always — the best natural astaxanthin food sources are those which have the most intense color. There are not precise and vetted studies on the exact amounts in the following foods numbers 16 through 20 and that is because they contain less often exponentially lower amounts than the salmonoids.

Plus, most of it is in their shells or scales which are not edible. Just a couple centuries ago, we would be able to eat salmon, shrimp, lobster, and other fish containing astaxanthin on a daily basis without any health worries.

Today that is not possible and as detailed above, the problem is so bad that even organic and wild caught is likely not safe to eat on a daily basis. Synthetic astaxanthin has 90x less antioxidant activity than the natural form Alaskan wild salmon are naturally grey, since there are no red crustaceans in their diet